Some people can point to one terrible day. Others can’t, because what happened to them wasn’t one day. It was years of living around someone who was frightening, unpredictable, or cruel, often someone they depended on. If that sounds familiar, you may have noticed that the effects go beyond memories. They show up in how you handle emotions, how you see yourself, and how hard it is to let people in.
Complex PTSD (C-PTSD) is the name the World Health Organization gives to that pattern. It includes the core symptoms of PTSD plus lasting difficulties with emotion regulation, self-worth, and relationships (WHO, ICD-11). It is also one of the most misunderstood conditions online, where it gets confused with borderline personality disorder, treated as a label for every hard feeling, or described as untreatable. None of that is accurate.
I’m Jamie L. Jones, founder of Juniper Blu Collective, a telehealth therapy practice serving Maryland, Washington, D.C., and Pennsylvania. I’ve spent more than 17 years supporting people through trauma. This guide covers what C-PTSD is, the signs, how it differs from PTSD and BPD, and what the research says actually helps.
Key Takeaways
- C-PTSD is PTSD plus three more difficulties: trouble regulating emotions, a persistently negative view of yourself, and trouble feeling close to others (WHO, ICD-11).
- It's an official diagnosis in the ICD-11, not the DSM-5-TR. In the U.S., many of the same symptoms fall under PTSD (VA National Center for PTSD).
- Trauma-focused therapy is the evidence-based starting point. The VA states that PTSD treatments work well whether someone has PTSD or complex PTSD.
- C-PTSD and BPD overlap but are not the same. Fear of abandonment and an unstable sense of self point more toward BPD (Cloitre et al., 2014).
- Treatment can happen online. Research generally supports video-delivered trauma therapy, with a few real considerations covered below.
What is complex PTSD (C-PTSD)?
Complex PTSD is a trauma-related condition that includes the three core symptom groups of PTSD plus three lasting “disturbances in self-organization”: problems regulating emotions, deeply negative beliefs about yourself, and difficulty sustaining relationships and feeling close to others. The World Health Organization added it to the International Classification of Diseases, 11th Revision (ICD-11), under code 6B41.
The ICD-11 describes those three added difficulties as severe and persistent. The negative self-beliefs typically sound like feeling diminished, defeated, or worthless, with shame, guilt, or a sense of failure connected to what happened. Together, the symptoms cause significant problems in family life, work, school, or relationships (WHO, ICD-11).
In the ICD-11, PTSD and complex PTSD are sibling diagnoses. A person can receive one or the other, not both (VA National Center for PTSD).
How common is it? In a nationally representative U.S. study using ICD-11 criteria, about 3.4% of adults met criteria for PTSD and about 3.8% met criteria for complex PTSD (Cloitre et al., 2019, Journal of Traumatic Stress). That means C-PTSD is not rare, and it was slightly more common than PTSD in that sample.
Complex trauma vs. complex PTSD: what’s the difference?
“Complex trauma” describes what happened to you. “Complex PTSD” describes a specific set of symptoms some people develop afterward. The two terms get used interchangeably, but they aren’t the same thing.
The VA National Center for PTSD describes complex trauma as trauma that was long-lasting, often happened in childhood, and involved harm from another person, especially someone the person trusted. Examples include ongoing childhood abuse or neglect and long-term domestic violence.
Two points matter here, and both come from the VA:
- Complex trauma raises the risk of C-PTSD, but it doesn’t guarantee it. Some people with a long trauma history have few lasting symptoms.
- C-PTSD can follow other kinds of trauma, too. The VA gives the example of a single serious car accident leading to large changes in someone’s self-esteem and relationships.
So if you’ve been told “your trauma doesn’t count because it wasn’t prolonged,” or “you must have C-PTSD because your childhood was hard,” both shortcuts miss the point. The symptoms, not the story alone, guide the assessment.
Is C-PTSD an official diagnosis in the U.S.?
C-PTSD is an official diagnosis in the World Health Organization’s ICD-11, but not in the DSM-5-TR, the manual most U.S. clinicians use. The DSM instead folds many of the same symptoms, such as negative changes in how people see themselves and feeling disconnected from others, into its broader PTSD diagnosis (VA National Center for PTSD).
What this means for you in practice:
- You may hear “complex PTSD” from a U.S. therapist even if your paperwork says PTSD. The VA notes that the two definitions overlap a great deal and that some providers use the terms interchangeably.
- A different name does not automatically mean a different treatment. According to the VA, complex PTSD “may not need a different type of treatment.” We’ll get into the nuance below.
- The label matters less than the picture. A good assessment looks at both layers of symptoms described in the next section, whatever name ends up in your chart.
- U.S. insurance paperwork uses an older code set. Under HIPAA, U.S. health claims still use ICD-10-CM diagnosis codes rather than ICD-11 (Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services), so the ICD-11 complex PTSD code won’t appear on a U.S. insurance claim.
What are the signs of C-PTSD?
The signs of C-PTSD fall into two layers: the core PTSD symptoms (reliving, avoiding, and feeling under threat) and a second layer of lasting difficulties with emotions, self-worth, and relationships. We call this the Two-Layer Map of C-PTSD. It’s a way of organizing the ICD-11 criteria so they’re easier to recognize in everyday life.
These are common signs, not a self-diagnosis checklist. Only a licensed clinician can assess whether they add up to PTSD, C-PTSD, or something else.
Layer 1: The PTSD core
The ICD-11 describes three core symptom groups shared by PTSD and complex PTSD (WHO, ICD-11):
- Re-experiencing in the present. Memories, nightmares, or flashbacks that feel like the event is happening now, not like remembering the past.
- Avoidance. Working hard to avoid thoughts, feelings, people, or places connected to what happened.
- A persistent sense of current threat. Staying on high alert, startling easily, and struggling to relax even when you’re objectively safe.
Layer 2: The self-organization layer
This is the layer that makes C-PTSD “complex.” The ICD-11 describes three added difficulties, each severe and persistent:
- Emotion regulation. Emotions that feel too big to manage, or the opposite: going numb, flat, or shut down. For example, a small criticism at work can set off hours of distress, or feelings can seem to disappear entirely.
- Negative self-concept. A steady belief that you’re worthless, defeated, or fundamentally flawed, often with shame or guilt tied to the trauma. For example, good news can bring dread that people will eventually discover you don’t deserve it.
- Relationship difficulties. Trouble sustaining relationships and feeling close to others. For example, pulling away from people just as they start to matter.
The VA National Center for PTSD adds that some people dissociate, feeling detached from themselves or their surroundings, as a way of coping with a situation they couldn’t escape, and that this can continue after the trauma ends. People with PTSD or C-PTSD also commonly experience depression, anxiety, or substance use concerns.
What about “emotional flashbacks,” “fawning,” and other terms you see online?
Terms like “emotional flashback” and “fawn response” are not ICD-11 symptoms, but they often describe real experiences that fit inside the two layers. An “emotional flashback” usually refers to being flooded by old fear or shame without a clear memory attached, which overlaps with re-experiencing and emotion regulation. “Fawning” usually refers to automatically appeasing others to stay safe, which can relate to both threat and relationship patterns.
This vocabulary can help people feel understood, and that matters. The limit is that it isn’t diagnostic, and some online content stretches C-PTSD to cover almost any painful experience. If a term resonates, bring it to a therapist as a starting point for the conversation, not a conclusion.
C-PTSD vs. PTSD vs. BPD: how do they differ?
C-PTSD differs from PTSD by adding lasting problems with emotions, self-worth, and relationships, and it differs from borderline personality disorder (BPD) mainly in how the self and relationships are affected: C-PTSD tends to involve a stable negative self-view and pulling away, while BPD tends to involve an unstable sense of self, fear of abandonment, and intense, shifting relationships (Cloitre et al., 2014).
The C-PTSD and BPD overlap is the most common source of confusion, and it has real consequences for treatment planning. A 2014 study of 280 women with childhood abuse histories found distinct PTSD, C-PTSD, and BPD profiles. Four features most strongly pointed toward BPD rather than C-PTSD: frantic efforts to avoid abandonment, an unstable sense of self, unstable and intense relationships, and impulsiveness (Cloitre et al., 2014, European Journal of Psychotraumatology).
| Feature | PTSD | Complex PTSD (C-PTSD) | Borderline personality disorder (BPD) |
|---|---|---|---|
| Where it's defined | ICD-11 and DSM-5-TR | ICD-11 only (6B41) | DSM-5-TR; in ICD-11, a "borderline pattern" qualifier (6D11.5) added to a personality disorder diagnosis |
| Trauma history required? | Yes | Yes | No, though many people with BPD have trauma histories |
| Core symptoms | Re-experiencing, avoidance, sense of current threat | All PTSD symptoms plus emotion, self-concept, and relationship difficulties | Emotional instability, impulsiveness, fear of abandonment |
| Sense of self | Can be affected | Stable but persistently negative (worthless, defeated, ashamed) | Unstable or shifting sense of who you are |
| Relationships | May pull back from people | Tends toward distance, avoidance, and trouble feeling close | Tends toward intense, unstable relationships and strong efforts to avoid abandonment |
| What treatment usually targets first | Trauma memories and avoidance | Trauma memories, often alongside emotion and relationship skills | Emotion regulation, safety, and relationship patterns; DBT is widely used |
Comparison of PTSD, complex PTSD, and borderline personality disorder. Sources: WHO ICD-11; VA National Center for PTSD; Cloitre et al., 2014; NIMH. These are general patterns. A person can have more than one condition, and only a licensed clinician can assess which applies.
Two things are worth holding at the same time. First, the distinction is real and research-supported. Second, the conditions can co-occur: the VA notes that people with PTSD or C-PTSD may also experience BPD. At Juniper Blu, we assess with both possibilities in view rather than defaulting to one label. My own training includes Advanced Personality Disorder Certification and C-DBT, which is part of why this distinction matters so much to our team.
What treatment actually helps C-PTSD?
Trauma-focused therapy is the evidence-based starting point for C-PTSD, and research shows it reduces PTSD symptoms in people with complex trauma features, though its effects on emotions, self-worth, and relationships are more variable, which is why many people also benefit from targeted work on that second layer.
Here is what the evidence supports, in plain terms:
- Trauma-focused therapies work for C-PTSD. The VA National Center for PTSD states that trauma-focused treatments, the most effective treatments for PTSD, also treat complex PTSD, and calls them “a good place to start.”
- The strongest trial evidence is for CBT-based trauma therapies, exposure-based therapy, and EMDR. A 2019 meta-analysis of 51 randomized trials in people with likely complex PTSD features found all three outperformed usual care for PTSD symptoms (Karatzias et al., 2019, Psychological Medicine).
- The second layer can be harder to shift. Reviews note that standard trauma therapies tend to have more variable, and often smaller, effects on the self-organization symptoms than on core PTSD symptoms (Karatzias et al., 2019; a 2026 review of psychotherapy for complex PTSD).
- Treatments built for complex presentations show promise. In a randomized trial of 193 women with PTSD after childhood abuse plus significant emotion dysregulation, both DBT for PTSD (DBT-PTSD) and cognitive processing therapy were effective, and the primary outcomes favored DBT-PTSD (Bohus et al., 2020, JAMA Psychiatry).
These are the same evidence-based approaches our clinicians draw on in online trauma therapy at Juniper Blu, chosen to fit each person rather than applied as a one-size protocol.
How the main approaches compare
| Approach | What it focuses on | Evidence status for PTSD / C-PTSD | Can it be done online? |
|---|---|---|---|
| Cognitive processing therapy (CPT) | Examining and updating beliefs formed by the trauma, such as self-blame | Among the strongest evidence in the APA's 2025 PTSD guideline | Yes; studied by video |
| Prolonged exposure (PE) | Gradually approaching trauma memories and avoided situations | Among the strongest evidence in the APA's 2025 PTSD guideline | Yes; studied by video |
| Trauma-focused CBT | Combined skills, cognitive work, and exposure | Among the strongest evidence in the APA's 2025 PTSD guideline | Yes |
| EMDR | Processing trauma memories with a structured protocol and bilateral stimulation | Effective in the Karatzias meta-analysis; the APA's 2025 guideline lists it in a second tier, which differs from several other guidelines | Yes, with adaptations |
| DBT-PTSD | DBT skills for emotions and safety combined with trauma-focused work | Promising for childhood abuse with emotion dysregulation (Bohus et al., 2020) | Components can be |
| STAIR and other phase-based approaches | Emotion and relationship skills first, then trauma processing | Researched; not yet shown to work better than trauma-focused therapy alone (VA) | Yes |
| Body-based approaches (e.g., trauma-informed yoga) | Body awareness and regulation | Not yet enough evidence as a C-PTSD treatment, though often helpful for general well-being (VA) | Varies |
Evidence-based and emerging approaches for PTSD and complex PTSD. Sources: VA National Center for PTSD; APA Clinical Practice Guideline for the Treatment of PTSD in Adults (2025); Karatzias et al., 2019; Bohus et al., 2020. Evidence status describes research support, not a guaranteed result for any individual.
A note on EMDR. The APA’s 2025 PTSD guideline names cognitive processing therapy, prolonged exposure, and trauma-focused CBT as having the strongest evidence, and lists EMDR among its suggested second-tier options (APA, 2025). A 2026 critique in the Journal of EMDR Practice and Research points out that five other national and international guidelines published in the past decade rank EMDR alongside trauma-focused CBT (Lee et al., 2026). Reasonable experts disagree here, and what matters most for you is a well-trained therapist and an approach you can stay with. Our EMDR vs. CBT vs. DBT guide goes deeper on how these differ.
Where art therapy fits. Art therapy is not a first-line PTSD treatment in major guidelines. As a complement, some people find that nonverbal expression helps with material that’s hard to put into words, which is common in Layer 2. Our guide to art therapy for trauma in adults covers what the research does and doesn’t show.
Where medication fits. Medication can be part of care for some people with PTSD symptoms, and decisions about it belong with a psychiatrist or other prescriber. Juniper Blu therapists collaborate with psychiatrists, nurse practitioners, and primary care physicians when that’s part of someone’s care.
Should you stabilize first, or start trauma processing right away?
For many people with C-PTSD, starting trauma-focused therapy directly is appropriate and effective, but some people benefit from building emotion-regulation and relationship skills first, and the research has not yet settled which approach is better on average (VA National Center for PTSD).
This is one of the most debated questions in trauma care. One view holds that complex trauma requires a phase of stabilization before any memory work. The other holds that long “preparation” phases can delay treatment that already works. The VA’s current summary lands in between: trauma-focused treatment is a good place to start, and phase-based approaches such as STAIR (Skills Training in Affective and Interpersonal Regulation) are researched options that haven’t yet been shown to work better than trauma-focused treatment alone. The APA’s 2024 Guidelines for Working with Adults with Complex Trauma Histories likewise emphasize flexibility and fitting care to the person.
The Readiness Conversation
Rather than a fixed rule, we find it more useful to look at three questions together with the person in therapy. These are conversation starters for you and a clinician, not a test to take on your own:
- Is the present safe enough? Ongoing danger, such as still living with someone who is causing harm, changes what comes first. Safety planning usually leads.
- Can you come back from a hard moment? If strong emotions or dissociation tend to take over for long stretches, building a few reliable ways to return to the present often comes before deep memory work.
- Which layer is running your daily life? Some people are most troubled by Layer 1 (flashbacks and fear). Others are most troubled by Layer 2 (shame, emotional swings, loneliness). That shapes where treatment starts.
When is more support than weekly therapy needed?
Weekly outpatient therapy isn’t the right starting point for everyone; frequent thoughts of suicide, recent self-harm, current danger, heavy substance use, or a co-occurring eating disorder with medical concerns can call for a higher level of care or additional medical support.
Signs it’s worth talking with a clinician about more intensive care, such as an intensive outpatient or partial hospitalization program, or a medical evaluation:
- Frequent or intensifying thoughts of suicide, or recent self-harm
- Living in an unsafe situation right now
- Substance use that feels out of control
- Dissociation that causes you to lose significant time or put yourself at risk
- An eating disorder with physical symptoms that need medical monitoring (our eating disorder therapy page explains how we coordinate with medical providers)
Needing more support isn’t a failure or a sign that therapy won’t help. It’s a matter of matching the level of care to what’s happening now. If you’re in immediate danger, use the resources at the top of this page.
Can C-PTSD be treated with online therapy?
For many people, yes: most trials and systematic reviews have found that trauma-focused therapy delivered by video reduces PTSD symptoms comparably to in-person care, though a large 2026 analysis of routine VA care found a small gap favoring in-person treatment.
A systematic review of 41 papers on video and phone trauma therapy for veterans with PTSD found it was as effective as in-person care in most studies, with high satisfaction (Turgoose et al., 2018, Journal of Telemedicine and Telecare). A 2026 analysis of more than 17,000 veterans in routine VA care found that people treated mainly by video were slightly less likely to see clinically meaningful improvement, and its authors recommended shared decision-making about format (Holder et al., 2026, Journal of Anxiety Disorders). We think that’s the honest summary: online trauma therapy is a strong, research-supported option, and fit matters.
Online therapy tends to work well when you have a private space, a reliable connection, and a plan for grounding after sessions. It may be a harder fit if home isn’t private or safe, if the person who caused harm lives with you, or if you need a higher level of care. Our guide to choosing an online trauma therapist walks through what to ask before you start.
How long does C-PTSD treatment take?
Trauma-focused treatments for PTSD and complex PTSD generally take about 3 to 4 months, according to the VA National Center for PTSD, though many people continue therapy afterward to work on concerns such as depression, self-worth, or relationships.
A few things commonly affect the timeline: whether skills-building comes first, whether other conditions are present, how often sessions happen, and what’s going on in someone’s life. We can’t tell anyone in advance how long their therapy will take, and we’re wary of anyone who promises a timeline. A clearer sense usually comes after an assessment and a few sessions.
How does Juniper Blu Collective approach C-PTSD?
Juniper Blu Collective provides online trauma therapy for complex trauma and C-PTSD to people in Maryland, Washington, D.C., and Pennsylvania, matching each person with a clinician whose training fits their needs and using evidence-based, trauma-focused approaches alongside skills for emotions and relationships.
Juniper Blu began with a focus on eating disorders and self-harming behaviors, and the trauma that often sits underneath them. Trauma care has been part of the practice from the start. Clinicians who support people with complex trauma include:
- Jamie L. Jones, LCPC, LPC, LCPAT, ATR-BC, C-DBT, TBHP. Founder and Clinical Director, licensed in Maryland, Washington, D.C., and Pennsylvania. Attachment Trauma Treatment Certification, Advanced Personality Disorder Certification, Certified Dialectical Behavior Professional, and board-certified art therapist.
- Malca R. Gottlieb, LICSW, LCSW-C, C-DBT. Licensed in Washington, D.C., and Maryland. EMDR-trained and a Certified Dialectical Behavior Professional, with a relationship-centered approach.
- Annie M. Sousa, LGPC. Licensed Graduate Professional Counselor in Maryland and Washington, D.C. EMDR-trained, with training in IFS, AEDP, and somatic trauma approaches. Offers therapy in English and Spanish.
- Stacey C. Cooperman, LGPC, NCC. Licensed Graduate Professional Counselor in Maryland and Washington, D.C. Certified Trauma Professional. Offers therapy in English and French.
- Megan M. Herbets, LPC, LCPC. Licensed in Washington, D.C., and Maryland. DBT-trained, supporting people navigating trauma alongside mood concerns, eating disorders, and self-harm.
You can learn more about our full approach on our online trauma therapy page, or read about PTSD therapy specifically. If you’d like to see who’s available where you live, visit our pages for online therapy in Maryland, online therapy in Washington, D.C., and online therapy in Pennsylvania.
What happens when you reach out?
Reaching out starts with a conversation, not a commitment: you contact the practice, talk through what you’re looking for, and get matched with a clinician licensed in your state.
- Contact us through our contact page or by phone at (202) 244-0818.
- Talk through fit. We’ll ask what’s bringing you in and what matters to you in a therapist. You don’t have to share details of your trauma to get started.
- Get matched with a clinician licensed where you live and trained in what you need.
- Begin with assessment. Early sessions focus on understanding both layers, your safety, and your goals, and building a plan together. Our guide to what to expect in a first therapy session walks through it step by step.
Frequently Asked Questions
Yes, but it depends on which diagnostic system is used. Complex PTSD (code 6B41) is an official diagnosis in the World Health Organization’s ICD-11, which took effect in 2022. The DSM-5-TR used in the U.S. does not list it separately, because its broader PTSD diagnosis already captures many of the same symptoms (VA National Center for PTSD).
PTSD centers on reliving the trauma, avoiding reminders, and feeling under current threat. Complex PTSD includes all of those symptoms plus three lasting difficulties: trouble regulating emotions, a persistently negative view of yourself, and trouble feeling close to others (WHO, ICD-11). In the ICD-11, a person receives one diagnosis or the other, not both.
Yes, because both can involve intense emotions and relationship strain. Research that compared the two found that fear of abandonment, an unstable sense of self, intense and unstable relationships, and impulsiveness pointed toward BPD, while C-PTSD more often involved a stable negative self-view and pulling away from people (Cloitre et al., 2014). The two can also occur together, so assessment by a licensed clinician matters.
Trauma-focused therapy is the evidence-based starting point. A 2019 meta-analysis of 51 trials found that CBT, exposure-based therapy, and EMDR reduced PTSD symptoms in people with complex trauma features (Karatzias et al., 2019). The VA notes that PTSD treatments work well whether someone has PTSD or complex PTSD. Many people also benefit from added work on emotions and relationships.
Many people experience meaningful improvement with treatment. The VA National Center for PTSD states that trauma-focused treatments, the most effective treatments for PTSD, also treat complex PTSD. Progress looks different for every person, and some concerns, such as depression or relationship patterns, may need attention after trauma symptoms ease. No therapist can promise a specific result, but support is real and available.
It varies by person. The VA National Center for PTSD notes that trauma-focused treatments generally take 3 to 4 months, and that some people continue working on concerns such as depression or relationships afterward. People who start with skills-building before trauma processing may spend longer in therapy overall. Your therapist can give you a clearer sense after an assessment.
For many people, yes. Randomized trials and systematic reviews have found video-delivered trauma therapy reduced PTSD symptoms comparably to in-person care for most participants, though a large 2026 analysis of routine VA care found a small gap favoring in-person treatment. Online therapy may not fit if your home is not private or safe, which is worth discussing before you start.
Yes. Juniper Blu Collective provides online trauma therapy, including care for complex trauma and C-PTSD, for people in Maryland, Washington, D.C., and Pennsylvania. Founder Jamie L. Jones, LCPC, LPC, LCPAT, ATR-BC, C-DBT, TBHP, is licensed in all three and holds Attachment Trauma Treatment and Advanced Personality Disorder certifications. Sessions happen over secure video.
Ready to talk?
If something in this guide sounded like you, you don’t need to have the right words or a diagnosis to reach out. Connect with Juniper Blu Collective to talk with our team about online trauma therapy in Maryland, Washington, D.C., or Pennsylvania.
Sources
- World Health Organization. ICD-11 for Mortality and Morbidity Statistics: 6B40 Post traumatic stress disorder; 6B41 Complex post traumatic stress disorder.
- VA National Center for PTSD. Complex PTSD. Updated September 2026.
- Cloitre, M., Hyland, P., Bisson, J. I., et al. (2019). ICD-11 PTSD and complex PTSD in the United States: A population-based study. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 32(6).
- Cloitre, M., Garvert, D. W., Weiss, B., Carlson, E. B., & Bryant, R. A. (2014). Distinguishing PTSD, complex PTSD, and borderline personality disorder: A latent class analysis. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 5.
- Karatzias, T., Murphy, P., Cloitre, M., et al. (2019). Psychological interventions for ICD-11 complex PTSD symptoms: Systematic review and meta-analysis. Psychological Medicine, 49(11), 1761-1775.
- Bohus, M., Kleindienst, N., Hahn, C., et al. (2020). Dialectical behavior therapy for PTSD (DBT-PTSD) compared with cognitive processing therapy (CPT) in complex presentations of PTSD in women survivors of childhood abuse. JAMA Psychiatry, 77(12), 1235-1245.
- American Psychological Association. (2025). Clinical Practice Guideline for the Treatment of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) in Adults.
- American Psychological Association. (2024). Guidelines for Working with Adults with Complex Trauma Histories.
- Lee, C. W., de Jongh, A., Farrell, D., Meysner, L., Dominguez, S., & El-Leithy, S. (2026). A critique of the 2025 American Psychological Association clinical practice guideline for the treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder in adults: Underrating EMDR effectiveness. Journal of EMDR Practice and Research, 20, Article 34. https://doi.org/10.34133/jemdr.0034
- National Institute of Mental Health. Borderline Personality Disorder.
- Turgoose, D., Ashwick, R., & Murphy, D. (2018). Systematic review of lessons learned from delivering tele-therapy to veterans with post-traumatic stress disorder. Journal of Telemedicine and Telecare, 24(9), 575-585. https://doi.org/10.1177/1357633X17730443
- Holder, N., Batten, A., Shiner, B., & Maguen, S. (2026). Is symptom improvement similar during PTSD psychotherapy delivered by video telehealth and in-person in routine Veterans Health Administration care? Journal of Anxiety Disorders, Article 103132. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.janxdis.2026.103132
- Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services. ICD-10 and FY 2026 ICD-10-CM Official Guidelines for Coding and Reporting.
Last updated: September 29, 2026